 What is genetics? In genetics, the biologists study " How the characteristics of an organism is passed on to their off springs and the causes for variations. Fig.1 Ninety nine (99%) percent of our genes are the same irrespective of nationality. What are genes? The unit, where a certain character is kept in a coded form is a gene. This really is a particular location in a very complex and a long molecule of DNA. D eoxyribo Nucleic Acid Fig.2. Double Helix nature of DNA. These provide instructions for the synthesis of RNA ( Ribonucleic acid) They synthesize proteins that are responsible for different traits. (Characters) The DNA molecule has two important properties.
A human has trillions of cells, and each and every nucleated cell possess a complete set of DNA of that individual. Almost all the DNA is enclosed within the nucleus. (There are some DNA coming from the mother inside the mitochondria.) What is a chromosome? The long DNA molecules get coiled and wound around proteins called histones. When a cell is about to divide Each molecule condenses and become visible as a structure called a chromosome . They exist as pairs and each part is known as a chromatid. Every live specimen has a definite number of chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs.
Fig.3 A pair of chromosomes. Reduction Division.- Meiosis. Passing of genes is not a straight forward task. Genes get thoroughly mixed due to a process called cross over when sex cells are formed during the cell division. This is known as Reduction division or meiosis. (For meiosis click this.) Although this is a carefully maneuvered process, mistakes do occur. They are known as mutations. Mutations can cause a gradual change in the offspring which may be for better or worse. Fig.4 A set of chromosomes from a male human cell. The last pair determines the sex. In females sex chromosomes have two of the same kind (X and X). Males have two distinct sex chromosomes (X and Y). During the formation of sex cells the chromosome number is halved. So each gamete cell (sperms and egg cells) can acquire only half the number of genes from a parent.
More on Genes The unit, where a certain character is chemically encoded has been termed a gene. A Human being has more than 20,000 genes. The largest chromosome, chromosome 1, contains about 8000 genes. The smallest chromosome, chromosome 21, contains about 300 genes. A gene is really a particular location in the DNA molecule. Usually 3 base pairs carry the code for a gene . They carry instructions to make necessary proteins for our traits. A trait is one of our characteristic such as skin colour, voice, height etc. They not only contain the recipes for the production of body tissues and enzymes required for respiration and digestion etc., even the time and the duration for various actions such as growing a beard and producing milk after pregnancy are precisely programmed. Every person has two copies of each gene , one from father and the other from mother. In all human beings 99% of the genes are the same while less than 1 % may be slightly different. These genes with slight differences are called alleles. Such differences cause the variations in human beings. What is the nature of DNA? The DNA molecule is a polymer made up of several units called nucleotides. A nucleotide consists of 3 parts. 1. A phosphate group. 2. De oxyribose sugar. 3. A base. They only differ according to the bases present. The nucleotides join together as shown in the diagram below.The two strands twist to form the double helix. The order of bases in one strand contains the genetic code.  Fig. 5 DNA Polymer.  Fig. 6. A nucleotide of the DNA polymer.
Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) first came across the idea of genes, in the 1860s. Mendelian Laws of Inhertance. 1. Law of segregation. During the formation of sex cells (gametes) reduction division allels separate. Each gamete will have only one allele from every pair. 2. Law of Independent assortment. Separation of alleles take place independently of each other. (A separation of one pair does not affect the separation of another.) 3. Law of dominance, Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive He studied inheritance in pea plants and hypothesized a factor that conveys traits from parent to offspring. Mendel was also the first to hypothesize independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between homozygote and homozygote.
What are alleles? Different forms of a gene, which may give rise to different phenotypes, are known as alleles.
According to the theory of Mendelian inheritance, variations in phenotype are due to variations in genotype, or the organism's particular set of genes, each of which specifies a particular trait. . Organisms such as the pea plants Mendel worked on, along with many plants and animals, have two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent. Alleles may be dominant or recessive; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait. Recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele. This is not always the case; in this situation the alleles are completely dominant. In other cases the alleles could be incompletely dominant or co-dominant. Incomplete dominance is when a characteristic in the heterozygote is intermediate in the degree between the two homozygotes. Co-dominance is when the heterozygote simultaneously expresses 2 alleles that have different kinds of effect. Chromosomes within cells are the carriers of genetic material, and they are made of DNA . DNA consists of nucleotide subunits: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. Each nucleotide subunit consists of three components: A phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar ring, and a base.  The DNA in a cell has double helix structure, in which two individual DNA strands twist around each other in a right-handed spiral. In this structure, the base pairing rules specify that guanine pairs with cytosine and adenine pairs with thymine. The base pairing between guanine and cytosine forms three hydrogen bonds, whereas the base pairing between adenine and thymine forms two hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix are complementary.
One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed
hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. So
processes such as DNA replication occur in only one direction. All nucleic acid
synthesis in a cell occurs in the 5' to 3' direction.
 Q. 1.0 What is the number of ………. 1.Chromosome pairs in a man? 2.Chromosome pairs in a woman? 3.Chromatids in a single pair of chromosomes? 4.Chromatids in a single cell after mitosis? 5.Chromatids in a single cell after meiosis? 4x5 = 20 marks. Q.2.0 Give a single word to describe these phrases.
5x8 =40 marks Q.3.0 Deoxyribose nucleic acid is a very long molecule called a 1.……………. A single repeating unit of it is called a 2……………. These molecules are present in the 3. …………… of a cell and are 4. …………….with a normal microscope. When a cell is about to undergo division, each molecule form into structures called 5…………………. The two strands of the molecule are made of a 6………………………… And are connected by the 7……………………….There are 8……………. Types of bases in a DNA molecule. 4x8 = 32 Marks Q.4.0 Name the numbered units in this diagram of a DNA molecule. 1x8=8 marks. For Answers click Answers -Bio.  |
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